Expo CAFE iti GB v1    07/2004
1 / ISSUES
1.1a-ENJEU Mur 126x250
Coffee, terroirs and people
What does the future hold for growers?

1.1b-ENJEU Mur 120x200
The coffee sector has to contribute to sustainable development

Poster 1
Coffee growing is in crisis
• World prices are at their lowest level for 100 years!
Smallholders can no longer cover their production costs
• Countries are faced with economic and social difficulties: increased poverty, violence, migration, etc

Poster 2
Why?
• Overproduction
• Very slow growth in consumption
• The disappearance of regulatory systems:
- State withdrawal,
- abandonment of the cartel system, etc
• Quality is not fully rewarded
• The market is highly speculative

Poster 3
Solutions…
In terms of supply
• Introduce minimum quality standards
• Help growers to diversify their activities so as to minimize the risks

In terms of demand
• Promote consumption
• Help consumers to become connoisseurs
• Encourage responsible consumption: fair trade, organic coffee, etc

In terms of producer income
• Help growers to promote their coffee

Research is a stakeholder in its own right in the coffee sector, helping it to find solutions

1.2-ENJEU Ailettes 33x200

Research, a step towards alleviating poverty

Producers hit by the crisis
• 30 million coffee producers have less than 5 ha of productive plantings!
• When prices are low, these smallholders can no longer make a living from what they produce.
• They often have low-yielding, ageing plantings of varieties that perform poorly.
• They do not have access to the market, and are not in a position to defend their interests.
• This results in temporary migration and abandoned plantations.

A crisis that has hit quality
• When coffee prices are too low, growers cut their production costs and reduce their labourers' wages.
• The labourers work more quickly, picking ripe and unripe cherries, which adversely affects coffee flavour.
A crisis that has also affected the environment
• Coffee plantings are also developed forest areas that can help to protect biodiversity.
• The current crisis has led growers to pull up their coffee trees, and has thus upset that natural balance.

Output is increasing
• There are 20 to 25 million coffee plantations worldwide.
• Coffee is primarily a smallholder operation, and supports 125 million people.
• World output is around seven million tonnes/year (117 million bags).

The big five producers
• Brazil: 2.3 million tonnes  (1/3 of world output).
• Vietnam: 850 000 tonnes.
• Colombia: 660 000 tonnes.
• Indonesia: 376 000 tonnes.
• Mexico: 320 000 tonnes.

Consumption is marking time 
• World coffee consumption is running at 6.3 million tonnes (106 million bags).
• New countries are beginning to consume coffee, particularly in eastern Europe and in Asia. However, consumption is stable, and is even falling in the main consumer countries.
The big five coffee consumers
• United States: 18.2 million bags.
• Brazil: 13.6 million bags.
• Germany: 9.4 million bags.
• Japan: 5.9 million bags.
• France: 5.3 million bags (55% arabica, 45% robusta).

A "quality coffee" approach
Along with its partners in developing countries, CIRAD is working to promote quality, in the hope of boosting producer incomes:
• characterizing and promoting coffees based on their quality and target market, for instance in the Dominican Republic.
• recognizing geographical origin (labels), identifying the factors governing typicality (environment, crop practices, etc), for instance in Indonesia.
• introducing quality approaches centring on using new varieties, crop techniques and postharvest processing techniques, for instance in Laos.
• CIRAD has extensive knowledge of coffee growing worldwide, and can offer its partners its expertise and training services, either on site or in its Montpellier laboratories.

• Along with its partners in the French overseas departments and territories, CIRAD is also working to re-launch quality coffee growing:
- in Guadeloupe: development of luxury coffee growing and introduction of labels for the coffee produced.
- in Réunion: creation of a high added-value coffee production sector centring on the "Bourbon Pointu" variety.

2/ BOTANY
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Botany
In the intertropical zone, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora are the two most widely grown varieties.

Coffee belongs to the genus Coffea (family Rubiaceae).
It includes almost 80 species and several hundred varieties.
Two species are cultivated:
• Coffea arabica (mountain areas),
• Coffea canephora, which produces robusta (humid lowland areas)
• Arabica was the first type of coffee to be cultivated. It likes cool, albeit frost-free climates, for instance in tropical mountain areas. The species originated in Ethiopia, and includes varieties such as Typica, Maragogype, Bourbon, Blue Mountain and Mundo Novo. Its beans are large, elongated and flat.
• Robusta, which comes from C. canephora, prefers the hot, humid, equatorial-type climates in which cocoa and banana also grow. It is not suitable for highland areas. C. canephora originated in central and West Africa. It has small, rounded beans.

2.2-BOTA 1-2-3/ 60x80

Poster 1
Classification
Coffee belongs to the genus Coffea.

• Coffee trees are fine, elegant plants that produce green leaves, white, scented flowers and red and green fruits.

They are evergreen, with glossy green, oval leaves .

The leaves grow in pairs, one each side of the stem.

Coffee trees can bear fruits at different stages of ripeness at the same time, and sometimes flowers as well.

The branches (primary ramifications) are horizontal. In their turn, the branches have secondary and tertiary ramifications.

Coffee trees generally have several stems, giving them a bushy appearance.

The root system comprises a tap root (which anchors the tree), with axial roots leading off it that provide the plant with water. There is a lateral root mat between 0.10 and 0.30 m below the soil surface, to provide the tree with nutrients.

Poster 2
Fruit
In the heart of the coffee cherry

• The fruits are initially green, but then turn yellow and eventually bright scarlet. They are commonly known as "cherries", although botanists prefer the term "drupe".

• They grow in tight clusters (glomerules), in the axil of leaves on young branches.

Once dried, the green beans contain 55% total polysaccharides, 8 to 15% fat depending on the variety, and around 11% protein, plus 10 to 13% water, alkaloids (including caffeine), and minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus).

Robusta cherries take eight to twelve months to ripen, and arabica six to eight months.

The fruits comprise a skin, varying amounts of a yellowish-white, sweet pulp (or mucilage), and two oval seeds (or beans), side by side.

Each seed has a pale yellow coating, the parchment or endocarp.

The seeds also have a close-fitting sheath known as the silverskin.

Poster 3
Flowering
Coffee trees are covered in white flowers.
• Several times a year, particularly at the end of the dry season, coffee trees are covered in exquisite, jasmine-scented white flowers. The flowers have five or six petals, and grow in clusters.
• In the event of a very marked dry season, the trees may flower once or twice a year. In the cold, rainy climates of highland areas, the trees may flower four or five times (if not more), over several months.

The flowers are fleeting, wilt as soon as they are pollinated, and become fruits.

Flowering is triggered by rainfall following a lack of water. The flowers are pollinated by insects or the wind.

The pistil that emerges from the cupule is topped with fine stigmata. It is surrounded by five stamens attached to the corolla.

2.3-BOTA 4-5/50x65

Poster 1
Environments
Coffee, a tropical plant

• Coffee trees are woody plants that are pruned to a height of 1.50 to 2 m. They grow in the humid intertropical zone, and live for an average of 50 years.
• In the wild, coffee is an understorey plant that grows in the shade of tropical trees, in deep soils. 
• It is susceptible to numerous diseases and pest attacks.

Coffee trees are grown under shade, in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of its original environment.

The coffee with 44 chromosomes
The arabica species is unusual: it is the only one with 44 chromosomes (all the other coffee species have 22). 
It is also the only self-pollinating species. All the other species require "pollinator" trees in the vicinity.

Poster 2
Reproduction
Distributing coffee varieties to growers

There are two ways of producing coffee trees for large-scale distribution to growers, depending on the species: sexual reproduction in seed form for arabica and vegetative propagation in the form of cuttings for robusta.
• Coffea arabica is described as autogamous as it is self-pollinating. Like wheat, its seeds result in an exact reproduction of the variety.
• Coffea canephora, which produces robusta, is described as strictly allogamous, since it cannot self-pollinate. In this case, the seeds do not result in an exact reproduction of the variety. Robusta varieties are therefore distributed as cuttings.

The seeds take two months to germinate and reach the "little soldier" stage. At this stage, they are transferred to a nursery, before planting out. The trees begin to bear fruit two or three years after planting.

Coffee clones can also be produced, by taking cuttings from stems with leaves. Once they have rooted, the clonal plants are transferred to the nursery for a few months before being planted out.

3/ TERROIRS
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Terroirs

Poster 1

The original terroirs

Africa, the birthplace of coffee
• Africa is the birthplace of coffee. Robusta (around 55%) and arabica (45%) are both grown there.
• Coffee was grown in all four corners of Africa in colonial times. It is now primarily grown traditionally, by smallholders, but the African sector is losing momentum compared to other continents. Africa's share in world coffee output fell from 35 to 18% between 1973 and 2001.
• African robustas are mostly "unwashed" coffees. They are strong and bitter, and are used to liven up breakfast blends and frothy espressos.
African arabicas include some of the world's finest coffees. They are grown in highland regions, often on volcanic soils.
• The term "Mocha" refers to coffees from Ethiopia and Yemen. One of the best known is Mocha Sidamo from Ethiopia, which sometimes has a highly distinctive warm apricot jam flavour.
• Ethiopian Djimah is an unwashed arabica. It gives a smooth, mild, aromatic, smoky coffee.
• Kenya AA is a very fine, sharp coffee with unusual aromas reminiscent of berries.

Output down 18% between 1975 and 2002

In 2002, output was around a million tonnes

Poster 2
The terroirs of the Orient
Asia's contrasting terroirs
• Asia has some of the oldest coffee-producing countries, but also emerging producers such as Vietnam, which has multiplied its output tenfold in a decade. Asia primarily produces robusta, which is reputed to be milder than that grown in Africa.
• India grows both arabica (43%) and robusta (57%). The most original varieties are monsoon arabicas (for instance Malabar Monsoon AA), which are highly unusual as they are aged in the humid monsoon winds, giving them a unique "wild" taste. However, one of the best Indian arabicas is Plantation AA from Mysore, which is very aromatic and delicate, with very low acidity.
• Indonesia grows 90% robusta, but some of its arabicas are highly sought-after, such as Java, which has low acidity and a sometimes spicy taste.
• In the Vietnamese coffee-growing zone, the deep red soils produce quite bitter robustas, but also relatively light arabicas.
• Papua New Guinea grows 95% arabicas, the best of which—Plantation AA—is full-bodied, balanced and aromatic. It is characterized by its character and complex aromas, which often include chocolate and sometimes liquorice.

The emerging continent, with output up 83% between 1992 and 2002

In 2002, output was around 1.8 million tonnes.

Poster 3
The terroirs of the New World
The Americas, a coffee-growing continent
• The Americas grow more coffee than any other continent: they supply 85% of the arabica produced worldwide. From Mexico to Brazil and the Caribbean to Hawaii, farmers have planted millions of hectares of coffee. In Latin America, coffee plays a major economic role, but in the hands of small- and medium-scale growers, it has also shaped the political, geographical and social situation in numerous countries.
• Brazil is the world's leading producer, but is also the second largest consumer. It is one of the few countries where some large plantations harvest their coffee mechanically. Brazilian coffees are often used in blends.
• Colombia mainly produces arabicas, which give a rich, balanced, slightly sharp beverage that sometimes has a hint of fresh or dried fruits.
• Some Costa Rican types are highly sought-after, such as Tarrazu: a good all-rounder, rather strong, slightly acid, fruity and complex, sometimes with spicy or floral aromas.
• The mountains of Guatemala also produce good all-round coffees: strong, acid, very fruity and aromatic. They are sometimes judged to have subtle smoky or spicy aromas.

The continent that produces the most coffee, 60% of world output

In 2002, output was 4.6 million tonnes.

3.2-TERROIRS 4-5-6/80X200
Poster 1
The original terroirs
Africa 
Did you know?
• The coffees known as "Mocha" come from Ethiopia and Yemen.

• There is a saying in Africa that "if the coffee trees are buzzing, the harvest will be good".

• Coffee is called "bun" in Kenya and "bunna" in Ethiopia.
 • In Burundi, the most densely populated regions are those that grow coffee.

• Most coffee species are found in the forests of Africa.

• The Madagascan coffee trees called "Mascarocoffea" produce caffeine-free coffee, but it is not marketed as it is too bitter.

• "Kouillou" is a coffee variety of the species Coffea canephora Pierre, which is found in Gabon, amongst other countries. It is known as "Colilon" in Brazil.

Poster 2
The terroirs of the Orient
Asia
Did you know?
• Laos has all the necessary conditions to produce high-quality coffee. It has recently decided to promote quality.

• In Indonesia, arabica and robusta are often mixed in the same plantation.

• India produces coffee, particularly around Mysore, in the South of the country.

• China is starting to export coffee, as is Nepal.

• Coffee disappeared from Sri Lanka at the start of the 20th century, due to a disease: leaf rust.

• An ibrik is a wide-bottomed, conical recipient used to make Turkish coffee. It makes a strong coffee that is best sipped if the drinker is not to swallow the grounds.

Poster 3
The terroirs of the New World
The Americas
Did you know?

• In Guatemala, coffee is grown at the foot of the Agua volcano.

• The best Cuban coffees are called "Crystal Mountain" and "Extra Turquino".

• Brazil has managed to increase production in areas not liable to frost.

• Maragogype is a small Brazilian town in Bahia State that has given its name to a giant arabica variety.
 
• The world's most expensive coffee is called "Blue Mountain". It comes from Jamaica, and is supplied in wooden barrels.

• Arabica is the only species authorized for cultivation in Costa Rica.

• "Tarrazu" is a famous coffee cru from Costa Rica.

•  The Dominican Republic is just starting to produce very high quality coffees.

4 / HARVESTING
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Harvesting

4.1b-RECOLTE pano/30x30
Harvesting

Around the tree
Coffee harvesting
Coffee cherries are primarily harvested by hand. The future quality of the beans is governed by whether the cherries are harvested carefully or quickly.
• If they are harvested carefully, the operation is known as picking. Pickers select only fully ripe cherries. This is a long, tricky operation, and is done by hand, in several rounds, as the cherries are never all ripe at the same time (up to five rounds per crop). This method gives the best results by far.
• If they are harvested quickly, the operation is known as strip picking. The harvesters strip all the fruits, whether ripe or unripe, from the branches at once. This gives poor results. The unripe cherries will produce a beverage without any aroma, and the over-ripe black cherries will result in an unpleasant off-flavour.
• They can also be harvested mechanically. The machines have vertical brushes that strip green and ripe fruits, leaves and flowers. Shakers may also be used, but neither technique is very common.

The fresh cherries have to be processed within six hours of harvesting.

4.2-RECOLTE lég.30x30 (30x210 et 30x120)
Harvesting

Harvesting

Hand-harvesting is a long and tricky business. To ensure optimum quality, there have to be several picking rounds so as to pick only ripe cherries.

Coffee harvesting is both labour-intensive and seasonal. It is a significant source of income, even in the non-producing areas where the pickers often come from.

Mechanical harvesting is used in Brazil, Hawaii and Australia, among other places. It is only possible on flat land.

In Costa Rica, decorated carts used to be used to transfer the fresh cherries to the wet-processing unit.

If the crop contains more than 5% green cherries, the end beverage will not be as good. It will be harsh and bitter.

To prevent off-flavours, the cherries have to be processed immediately, within six hours of harvesting.

5/ PROCESSING
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Processing

5.1b-TRANSFO pano/30x30 
After harvesting
The different stages of coffee processing

• Once harvesting is finished, the coffee cherries will undergo initial processing near the production site. There are two methods:
        • the wet method 
        which produces "parchment coffee";
        • the dry method
        which produces "dry cherry".
• Arabicas can be processed using the wet method, which produces "washed" coffee, or the dry method, which gives "unwashed" coffee. Most robustas are dry-processed ("unwashed" coffees).

To obtain "green coffee":
• "parchment coffee" and "dry cherry" are transferred to factories for parchment removal or hulling, which strip the bean of its sheath;
•  the resulting "green coffee" is then cleaned and sorted by size, density and colour, before being exported for roasting.

5.2a-TRANSFO lég./30x30 (30x90) 
5.2a1-TRANSFO:
Green beans
Colombia: washed arabica
(wet process). The cup is aromatic with a floral, grassy character, while the liquor is not very strong, with slight acidity
Maragogype: washed Arabica, variety with very large beans
Indian Malabar Monsoon: 
this Arabica produced using the dry process is known as “monsoon” as it is remoistened to give it the very specific “animal” taste of the coffees that, in the time of sailing ships, took four to six months to arrive in Europe.

The wet process
1/ Sorting
Any leaves, twigs, sand, stones and dried beans are removed.
2/ Pulping
The skin and some of the pulp are removed from the cherries using mechanical pulpers.
3/ Fermentation
Any remaining pulp is broken down by microbes (fermentation) or removed mechanically.
4/ Washing
Washing prevents the proliferation of microorganisms. It is generally done in tanks, but if it is done in channels, the beans can be density-sorted at the same time.
5/ Drying
Once the beans are stripped of everything but their parchment, they are dried (in the sun or artificially). This reduces the bean moisture content from 55 to 12%.

5.2b-TRANSFO lég./ 30x30 (30x120)
Dry cherry
The dry method
• The cherries are sun-dried for two to three weeks. They are spread out in thin layers (3 to 4 cm thick), on concrete, trays or tarpaulins. The cherries are stirred two or three times a day.
• The different coatings (skin, pulp and parchment) dry out to form the hull. The beans rattle inside the hull once the cherries are dry.
• Mechanical drying, which is faster, is also used. However, drying coffee too fast adversely affects quality.

Green beans
Ivory Coast: unwashed robusta (dry method). Robusta is often served in cafés as it froths better than arabica. The resulting beverage is strong, if not harsh.

Vietnam: unwashed, relatively mild robusta suitable for blends.

The wet method
1/ Drying
The cherries are sun-dried for around 20 days, to reduce their moisture content from 70 to 12%.
2/ Drying
The cherries have to be stirred regularly and sheltered at night or when it is raining.
3/ Hulling
Once the cherries are dry, the beans rattle inside the parchment. They can be hulled; this produces commercial coffee.

6/ ROASTING
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Roasting

6.1b-TORREF pano/30x30 
From green bean to cup

Roasting releases the aromas in coffee

• Once the green beans are bagged, they are exported to consumer countries for roasting.
• Roasting means heating the beans to 250°C. They lose water, double in volume and change colour, and their aroma develops.
• During roasting, coffee undergoes physical and chemical changes that determine its end quality:
- light roasting produces mild, sharp coffee;
- roasting beans more increases their bitterness.

Some 800 aromatic compounds develop during roasting!

6.2a-TORREF lég./30x30 (30x90 et 30x60)
Roasting

People used to roast their own coffee at home, but nowadays, it is a matter for specialists. It is during heating that the beans develop their brown colour, aroma, and very specific taste.

Master roasters use highly advanced technology to roast large quantities of coffee.

Roasters, or master roasters, turn green coffee beans, which do not have any aroma, into brown beans with a complex flavour comprising over 800 aromatic compounds.

Light roasting
Dark roasting

Roasting

No two origins are roasted in the same way: an Ethiopian Sidamo, with its sharp, fruity flavour, will be light roasted, while Mexican coffees can withstand darker roasting.

It is before roasting that most roasters carry out quality controls and make up their green coffee blends. Their recipes may contain anything up to seven different coffee origins.

7/ TASTING
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Tasting

7.1b-DEGUST pano/30x30
Coffee and coffees

Ground, instant or decaffeinated?

The difference lies in how the soluble elements in the coffee are extracted.
Ground coffee:
extraction may be under pressure (espresso machines), by percolation (filter machines), or by infusion (piston devices).
Instant coffee: 
the water is evaporated off from coffee concentrate, by freeze-drying or spray-drying.
Decaffeinated coffee:
the caffeine is extracted from green coffee, generally using a solvent. The coffee is then roasted.

7.2-DEGUST lég./30x30 (30x90)
Tasting

Smell, mouthfeel, taste and aroma are the four main criteria on which coffee is judged.

To make espresso, finer-ground coffee is used than for filter coffee machines.

Caffeine
Coffee, health and wellbeing!
• Average coffee consumption in France is currently between one and five cups per day.
• Coffee acts as a slight stimulant. It improves learning, stimulates the memory and increases alertness 
• The caffeine in coffee helps to relieve headaches and can also nip migraines in the bud. It also improves hormonal resynchronization in the event of jetlag.
• It contains few calories (2 kcal/cup), and helps the digestion by stimulating the gall bladder and increasing pancreatic secretion. It also improves physical performance by adjusting the heart rate and encouraging fat burning.
• Coffee is also a source of vitamins, potassium and polyphenols.
Drinking coffee is first and foremost a pleasant, convivial experience.

How much caffeine is there in a cup of coffee?
• It depends on the preparation method
- Filter coffee: 50-175 mg
- Espresso: 40-110 mg
- Instant coffee: 35-110 mg.

• It depends on the type of coffee
(for 150 ml of filter coffee)
- Robusta: 100-250 mg
- Arabica: 50-120 mg
- Decaffeinated: 1-6 mg.

Source: SNICC/Expressions Santé

7.2-DEGUST:
légende photo
- Coarse-ground coffee
- Fine-ground coffee

7.3ab-TASSE CAFE/126x250 
Roasting releases the aromas in coffee.

Some 800 aromatic compounds develop during roasting!

8/ RESEARCH
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Research

A succession of stages
Coffee quality: a complex process

From terroir to cup, every single stage of coffee production subsequently affects beverage quality.
• Terroir and production
        soil, climate, variety, crop techniques, postharvest processing
• Export and import
         storage, transport
• Roasting
        blending, roasting
• Consumption
        preparation method
Each stage gives coffee a quality potential that may or may not be put to good use in the next stage, depending on how skilled the operators involved are. CIRAD's research is geared towards pinpointing the relative impact of each stage on coffee quality.

8.2-RECHER 60x80 
Poster 1
A scientific approach
Coffee quality: a research issue
CIRAD has demonstrated the importance of certain factors in terms of quality development.
• Altitude and shading increase acidity and improve coffee quality by slowing cherry ripening.
• Heavy fruit loads increase bitterness, while low loads boost acidity.
• Bean biochemical composition also affects coffee quality:
- sugars combine with proteins to form aromas;
- fat enables more effective aroma fixation;
- chlorogenic acids are a source of acidity and inhibit aroma formation.
As with wine, the fact that coffees are affected by their "terroir" is a major aspect of any quality strategy 
CIRAD is providing scientific backup for the development of coffees labelled with their origin. Researchers are working to pinpoint the key environmental parameters and skills that make a given product specific.
CIRAD is also conducting research on coffee sanitary quality, particularly on moulds, which produce toxins such as ochratoxin A.
The aim of this research is to: 
• identify the factors leading to mould development;
• determine how toxins are produced;
• make people working in the sector more aware of the problem and train them in prevention techniques.

Poster 2
Integrated pest management
The "Brocap®" trap, a coffee berry borer integrated management tool
An economical solution that safeguards the environment and biodiversity
• A design tailored to the insect's biology 
• A powerful attractant blend
• Reduced pesticide applications
• Highly selective trapping: 97% of the insects captured are coffee berry borers

Excellent results 
• A 10 to 16% increase in commercial coffee yield
• Coffee free of pesticide residues
• Fewer damaged beans, thus reducing the risk of mould contamination

(Légendes)
The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei, is a major pest on coffee.
Description of the trap
• At the top, a red funnel topped with a cross-shaped capture device (the coffee berry borer is attracted to red);
• In the centre of the cross, a diffuser containing the volatile attractant;
• Below that, the capture container, which is transparent to enable visual checks.

Trap efficacy
• The trap is being tested in several countries, notably El Salvador, and has already proved its efficacy.
• Up to 10 000 borers can be captured per trap per day during migration, in heavily infested regions!
Brocap® is both patented and a registered trademark, and was developed jointly by CIRAD and Procafé 
(Fundación Salvadoreña para Investigaciones del Café).

Poster 3
Integrated pest management
Biotechnologies as an alternative to pesticides
• Biotechnologies are a new prospect in the drive to reduce the use of chemicals against insect pests.
• Research is under way with a view to making plants produce a protein that controls the development of lepidopteran larvae that attack coffee trees.
• Genetically modified, leaf miner-resistant trees have already been developed in the laboratory. Field trials are under way in French Guiana, to test the results of the laboratory research and determine the likely environmental impact of these plants.
• It will take many years and several series of tests before these plants can be distributed on a large scale.

(Légendes)
Transgenic coffee plant callus expressing a marker gene that has turned it blue

Leaf with signs of leaf miner tunnels

Two coffee plants, one susceptible and one resistant to leaf miners, in the laboratory

Transgenic coffee plot in French Guiana

Poster 4
Crop improvement
New arabica varieties
• Traditional arabica varieties are susceptible to disease. Their narrow genetic base prompted researchers to try to breed more resistant trees.
• Around a hundred F1 hybrids were obtained by hand pollination and planted in four trials in Costa Rica. After seven years' breeding work, 19 hybrids were obtained:
- they produce 20 to 50% more than traditional varieties, and begin to bear sooner;
- they are resistant to the main diseases;
- their cup quality is equivalent to or better than that of traditional varieties.
• Exceptional individuals chosen among these hybrids have been cloned by somatic embryogenesis. They are currently undergoing field tests.

(Légendes)
Hybrid between a traditional variety (Caturra) and an Ethiopian wild tree. It has a remarkably early crop

Ethiopian wild coffee tree, which is not very productive but whose beans are reputed for their cup quality. These trees have disease-resistance genes

Hybrids grown in the shade produce more than traditional varieties grown in the open

Poster 5
Crop improvement
New Coffea canephora varieties
• Coffea canephora cultivation to produce robusta is hampered by the limited use of selected planting material (around 10% of the total area planted). The current clonal varieties are difficult to propagate as cuttings and to distribute to farmers. Hybrid varieties, which are easy to produce and distribute in seed form, would be an interesting alternative for growers.
• Breeding work in the Ivory Coast by CNRA and CIRAD has doubled hybrid production potential in less than 20 years. These hybrids have now even surpassed the best clones.
• This is a decisive result for C. canephora improvement, as:
- it opens the way for the distribution of hybrid seeds produced in seed gardens;
- it has helped to encourage the use of selected planting material;
- it has led to a sustainable recovery of C. canephora production, particularly in Africa.

(Légendes)
C. canephora seedlings grown from seed: "little soldier" and open cotyledon or "butterfly" stages

C. canephora trees in flower

Hand pollination of coffee is a key stage in the breeding process. The fruiting branches are placed in a white fabric sleeve, and pollen is brushed onto isolated flowers.

A Coffea canephora  hybrid variety: bearing four-year-old tree

Poster 6
Genome analysis
Deciphering DNA to facilitate coffee tree improvement
• New tools are now available to help breeders analyse DNA, which governs heredity. Genetic mapping serves to identify and locate small portions of DNA that indicate the presence of worthwhile agronomic characters and that can be used to facilitate and accelerate genetic improvement.
• It is also possible to splice a plant's DNA into small sections. These sections are then used to test for the presence of genes whose agronomic merits are known. This work involves using BAC banks and gene detection.

A long story... confirmed by its DNA!
• Arabica (Coffea arabica) trees appeared in Ethiopia some ten thousand years ago. They were the result of a natural cross between two trees of different species: Coffea eugenioides and Coffea canephora.
• Arabica domestication began in southwestern Ethiopia in the tenth century or thereabouts, and its cultivation quickly spread to Yemen and subsequently to the rest of the world, from the 18th century onwards. Two coffee tree populations, known as Typica and Bourbon, were behind the spread of arabica from Yemen.
• The 10 to 20 billion arabica trees now planted worldwide are directly descended from these two populations! 
• DNA research by IRD has confirmed the history of the species. The coffee trees planted nowadays are indeed descended from these two populations, which both have narrow genetic bases that are clearly distinct but have many similarities.

(Légendes)
Colouring small sections of coffee DNA of varying lengths, which can each contain several dozen genes
The reduction in genetic diversity since Coffea arabica was first cultivated

(Schéma)
Original diversity in Ethiopia
Situation in the tenth century, when cultivation began in Yemen
Final situation in the 18th century, when arabica spread worldwide

Poster 7
Research
New applications: anaerobic biodigestion and remote sensing
• Biodigestion has been tested as a way of treating the waste water produced by coffee processing plants using the wet process, and of managing byproducts such as pulp. In both cases, anaerobic biodigestion produces large quantities of biogas that can be used to dry coffee.

(Légende)
A "Transpaille" biodigester at a coffee processing plant in Mexico

• With the availability of Very High Spatial Resolution since 2000, the smallest item that can be distinguished on an image shot from space is now around a metre in size (Ikonos) or less (Quickbird). It is thus now possible to visualize objects such as coffee trees, banana plants or oil palms, which should enable new mapping applications of use in managing these tropical crops.
• CIRAD is working to develop algorithms for use in identifying plots planted with coffee, with a view to extracting information from a distance, for instance on stress, contamination by disease, etc. 

(Légende)
Remote sensing serves to map simple plant cover characteristics such as density or structure. The vegetation is red and the soil blue

Poster 8
Agroforestry
Promoting agroforestry
In agroforest plantations, coffee trees are planted in specific shade provided by one or two forest species. There are numerous advantages:
• economic advantages for growers:
- timber and firewood are produced, which provide them with extra income,
- the risks are spread better than with a coffee monoculture,
- this type of planting is less labour- and fertilizer-intensive.
• ecological advantages:
- reduced erosion of fragile mountain soils,
- reduced logging of natural forests,
- biodiversity conservation.
• the microclimate in agroforest plantations means that the cherries take longer to ripen, hence improving coffee quality.

Poster 9
Signature
In February 2003, at the instigation of CIRAD and the International Coffee Organization (ICO), 25 research centres, interprofessional organizations and NGOs signed an International Research Initiative on Coffee Sustainability.

Declaration of intent

It is generally recognized that coffee plays a vital role in the sustainable development of a large number of developing countries in the tropical zone.  Not only do many of these countries depend on coffee for a large portion of their export earnings but also coffee provides a vital source of income to some twenty-five million farmers and their families worldwide.  It is therefore an important source of employment and social stability in rural communities. Furthermore the coffee industry is an important source for employment in consuming countries and coffee consumption a social reality throughout the world.  In addition coffee has many positive environmental effects as a broad-leaved evergreen perennial crop and a stabilising factor for soils and water.

It is widely recognised that for some years coffee in producing countries has been in a state of crisis.  Continued imbalances between supply and demand have led to prices at historic lows that in many cases do not cover production costs and have led to increased poverty and even destruction of communities.  At the same time the overall quality of coffee available to the consumer has declined while drops in retail prices have been modest.

As a reaction to this situation there has been an important mobilisation of concern by many institutions including stakeholders in the coffee sector itself to identify and mobilise support for cooperative initiatives to address the crisis situation. The range of ideas that has been proposed includes market rationalisation through quality improvement, diversification and promotion of consumption.  It is crucial to acknowledge the contribution of research not only in the strictly scientific and technical area but also with respect to economic and administrative programmes to address these problems.

Since there is a relatively low degree of cooperation and coordination in the research area, the signatories to this declaration pledge to work for the creation of a coordinated global research and development programme on coffee sustainability.  Its purpose is to work in public and private partnerships, in both the North and South, for the creation of coffee-based farming and processing systems.  These systems will offer stable development prospects and long-term economic incentives to the smallholders through technology transfer and education/training programmes to promote environmentally beneficial sustainable production of coffee.

(Légende)
Paris 24/02/2003 • Salon International de l’Agriculture

8.5-RECH Sup:

légende illustration:
Coffee cherry development
- Perisperm (maternal phase)
- Development of endosperm
- Endosperm
Perisperm = silverskin
- Cell division and perisperm development > end characteristics of coffee beans
- Cell division and endosperm elongation
- Storage phase
- Pulp maturation

Coffee cherry development stages
Top:
Bearing Coffea canephora

Detection of genomic DNA fragments of a Coffea canephora clone, stained with ethidium bromide

9/ HISTORY
9.1a-HISTOIR1/80X200 
History
An exotic beverage
From Ethiopia to "coffee houses"
• Arabica coffee originated in Ethiopia, and was first cultivated in Yemen, from the tenth century onwards. The port of Mocha was rapidly supplying the whole of the Muslim East, and gradually began shipments to Europe, which was developing a taste for the exotic beverage.
• However, not many beverages have been as widely forbidden or persecuted as coffee. It was seen as being suitable for Muslims but not for Christians, and was accused of encouraging its consumers to frequent dens of iniquity. At least that was what the Catholic Church thought, until Pope Clement VIII (1536-1605) tasted it… and decided he liked it.
• The Ottoman Empire lost its monopoly on coffee growing at the end of the 17th century, when the Dutch acquired some coffee seeds in Yemen and planted them in India and then in Java. The British, Portuguese and French subsequently introduced coffee into their colonies.
• Almost from the outset, coffee was associated with conviviality and wit. As early as the 16th century, "coffee houses" appeared in Mecca and then in Europe, in Marseilles, Venice, London, Vienna and Paris. Patrons would gather there to listen to music, play games, read, meet their friends, and exchange ideas… some of which were grandiose theories about how to change the world! In short, nothing seems to have changed since the first cafés were born.

9.1b-HISTOIR1motif/80X200 (pas de texte)

9.2-HISTOIR2/80X120
Collection
Archive photos that tell the story of coffee
These glass plates, which were recently digitized, are part of an as yet unpublished collection of photographs from the early 20th century, which CIRAD is keen to promote.

Top:
• Three-year-old coffee tree (Indochina, 1900)
• Graphs and plates (1929 and 1955)

Right:
• Coffee flower bud (Ivory Coast, 1934)
• Pruning coffee (Ivory Coast, 1934)
• Blending beans (Cameroon, 1936)
• Washing and drying area (Brazil, 1920)
• Bagging (New Caledonia, 1931)
• Unloading coffee (France, 1900)
• Warehouses in Le Havre (France, 1900)

10/ DIORAMAS (History)
10.1-DIORA Histoir/80x200  (Pas de texte)
10.2-DIORA Voyages/80x200  (Pas de texte)
10.3-DIORA Cafés/80x200  (Pas de texte)

10.4-DIORA  lég 30x30 
History
Discovery
• Kaldi, a Yemeni goatherd, was surprised to see his goats in a state of excitement after eating the berries of a bush. He also tasted them, and began to dance.
• He went to find the local wise men to tell them about his discovery. They had the idea of brewing the berries to make a beverage that they called "Khawa". 
• The beverage rapidly spread to all the holy cities of Islam.

Travels
• The Ambassador of the Ottoman Empire in France introduced Louis XIV's court to coffee. However, it was the Mayor of Amsterdam who gave the Sun King his first coffee trees.
• Gabriel de Clieu, a naval officer, transported the plants to Martinique. 
• The first seeds were distributed to the local inhabitants, who spread coffee growing throughout the West Indies.

Cafés
• Paris rapidly succumbed to the charms of coffee, and its associations with conviviality and wit. 
• The great thinkers of the time began to frequent coffee houses, some of which served as political high commands, particularly during the Revolution. 
• Cafés are still places to meet and talk, albeit virtually in the case of cyber-cafés!

11/ CIRAD
11.1-CIRADs 30x30
CIRAD
A staff of 1 800, including 900 researchers
Researchers in over 50 developing countries

Research centres:
in metropolitan France
• Paris region
• Montpellier
• Corsica
in the French overseas departments and territories
• Martinique
• Guadeloupe
• Réunion
• French Guiana

Joint research units with:
INRA, IRD, CNRS, universities, higher education, etc.

A French agricultural research centre for international development
• Operations centring on partnerships
• Objectives centring on sustainable development

Research ranging from the life sciences to the social sciences, applied to sustainable development

Operations concerning: 
• agriculture and production chains
• agricultural policy
• forestry
• animal production and veterinary medicine
• agrifoods
• natural resource and biodiversity management

A policy of promoting innovation in terms of company management.

11.2- SIGNALETIK/1x3m
Coffee, terroirs and people

11.3-CONTRIB:
Communication

Contributions
• The travelling exhibit on coffee “Coffee, terroirs and people” is courtesy of CIRAD (the French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development – Paris/France) and the MAE (French Ministry for Foreign Affairs - Paris / France). 
• It was produced by the CIRAD Events Organization Service, with the support of researchers from the Coffee Programme.

Illustrations
Photographs: ICO (International Coffee Organization), CIRAD researchers and the CIRAD Illustrations Unit
Illustrations: Nathalie Le Gall, Nelly Larkins

Creation
Design: Denis Delebecque/Méridiennes - Montpellier/France
Production: Postercolor - Montpellier/France

12/ SUPPLEMENTS  n°1

8.4-RECH Sup 60x80
Research

panneau 1
Everything you ever wanted to know about coffee

Coffee quality experts

Coffee quality experts know how to describe the aromas and flavours of a coffee, and can link them to the conditions in which it was produced.
CIRAD has a panel of 12 to 15 people trained according to AFNOR standards, capable of assessing the sensorial properties of coffees. The panel can describe a product, detect and measure differences between products, characterize coffees from different terroirs, and compare a given coffee with the relevant market standards.
CIRAD uses sensorial analysis methods to study the impact of the conditions during production, postharvest processing, storage, roasting or beverage preparation.
It can tailor its research to consumer demand, offer producers support in promoting their coffee, and study the factors involved in the terroir effect.
This information is passed on to producing countries and roasters.
CIRAD offers various theoretical and practical training modules to teach students how to roast and taste coffee. The training takes place at its Montpellier laboratories (France). Its experts can also work directly within the coffee industry in producing countries, for instance by helping to support, appoint and train tasting panels in sensorial analysis techniques.

Organoleptic differences between arabica and robusta

Fruity
Green
Earthy
Body
Acidity
Bitterness
Astringency
Arabica
Robusta

CIRAD sensorial analysis laboratory: coffee tasting

panneau 2
Supporting agricultural professional organizations

Alleviating poverty, support proposals for smallholder coffee growing

Thirty million producers have less than 5 ha of productive coffee trees. When prices are low, they can no longer make a living from what they produce. When prices are high, this often only enables other operators downstream to rebuild their capital.
In response to the challenge of  alleviating poverty in coffee-growing zones, CIRAD is working with smallholders on several research projects aimed at:
• analysing local production sectors: characterizing production, processing systems, contracts between stakeholders, etc.
• promoting coffee through specific labelling: conformity certificates, AOC-type geographical indications, fair trade or organic coffee, and quality certification and control systems.
• improving cropping and production systems: intercropping tree crops with other tree crops or annuals, integrated production management.
• optimizing the available funds: microfinance, management advice, decision support, establishment of community funding schemes.
• improving how coffee growers' organizations are run and expanding their role: economic, social and representative functions, protecting farmers' interests.
As a research organization, CIRAD is working to develop the local coffee sectors in several countries, such as Indonesia, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Laos, and Ivory Coast.

Grafting arabica onto robusta at a farmers' organization in Guatemala

Top:
Training in assessing coffee berry borer damage in the Dominican Republic

Demonstration of coffee cherry pulping on a smallholding, Indonesia

Guatemalan coffee smallholder transporting nursery plants

panneau 3
Coffee safety

Coffee contamination, determining the risks

Coffee is one of many agricultural products (such as cereals, grapes, dried fruit, etc) susceptible to contamination by mycotoxins, which can prove toxic, if consumed in large quantities and over a long period. 
The toxin (ochratoxin A in the case of coffee) is produced by moulds that develop differently from place to place and depending on production practices. 
The International Coffee Organization (ICO), supported by the European coffee industry (ISIC) and six producing countries, has launched a prevention project, overseen by the FAO. CIRAD is involved in the project.
The aim of the research is to explain the factors governing mould development and the conditions for ochratoxin A production. 
The introduction of a code of good conduct and the provision of training for stakeholders in the sector should help to reduce the risks of contamination.

Moisture absorption during drying, transport or storage of green coffee can trigger ochratoxin formation.

Certain fungi of the genus Aspergillus produce ochratoxins.

The analysis methods developed so far are costly but can detect traces of ochratoxin A.

panneau 4
A scientific approach

Coffee characterization tools

• Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), 

• Combined gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy (GC/MS),

• High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).

These tools can analyse the characteristics of green coffee, either roasted or not:
• physical properties, 
• green coffee biochemical composition, for instance aroma precursors, sugars and amino acids, 
• determination of roasted coffee aroma constituents, 
• the chemical compounds responsible for certain organoleptic defects.

Chromatograph of roasted coffee aroma constituents

A new analysis tool: near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
This method serves to:
- determine the composition of roasted and ground arabica and robusta blends, 
- class samples by geographical origin and variety.

panneau 5
What genome studies can contribute

A better understanding of what makes up coffee quality

To define what characterizes coffee quality, particularly its organoleptic characteristics, researchers look at the biological processes (flowering, ripening, etc) that determine the characteristics of the product, such as caffeine, sugar and fat accumulation, etc.
Studying the metabolism of compounds linked to quality
Some compounds (sugars, fats, proteins, free amino acids, etc) are already known to be involved in coffee quality. Their accumulation is controlled by complex metabolic processes that accompany exchanges between different tissues during bean ripening. 
Identifying the genes involved
Genomic tools can now be used to identify the genes coding for key enzymes and to locate those genes within the genome.
For instance, three key enzymes in the sugar metabolism have been studied (a sucrose synthase and two invertases), and the genes coding for those enzymes are under analysis.
Once genes have been identified and located within the genome, there are two possible applications in creating improved varieties:
- marker-assisted breeding, which consists in sorting varieties according to the existence or absence of those genes;
- introducing genes selected previously from a cultivated variety, so as to improve quality in a targeted way (genetic modification). 
The main tools currently used are:
- a search for homologous DNA sequences in international databases (data mining);
- the construction of expressed DNA banks (EST);
- the construction of genomic DNA banks (BAC banks);
- genome mapping. 
CIRAD is working with numerous partners on this, in the field, either on plant material produced by controlled pollination (with CNRA in Ivory Coast) or on large populations resulting from natural mixing on smallholder plantations (with CORI in Uganda).

Coffee cherry development stages
Top:
Bearing Coffea canephora

Detection of genomic DNA fragments of a Coffea canephora clone, stained with ethidium bromide